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Biology, ecology and bloom dynamics of the toxic marine dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense. 62, 626–630. Mar. Cienc. bahamense? 69, 13–22. Mex. Autón. (2010). Environmental forcing on the flux of organic-walled dinoflagellate cysts in recent sediments from a subtropical lagoon in the Gulf of California. (1991); Cortés-Altamirano et al. Univ. Ottawa: Canadian Science Publishing. The toxicity of the dinoflagellates is due to a mixture of STX derivatives of which the composition differs per producing species and/or per region of occurrence. An. (2015); Maciel-Baltazar (2015); Poot-Delgado (2016); Campos-Campos et al. Investigación y Ciencia de la Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes 68, 91–96. toxic dinoflagellate, Pyrodinium bahamense var. But in 2003, this unique habitat was adversely impacted by the local practice of swimming in the area. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Box 60, Murfreesboro, TN 37132, USA, Telephone number: +1‐615‐898‐5205; FAX number: +1‐615‐898‐5093; e‐mail: leblond.jeff@gmail.com. The vegetative stage has been reported into three regions, the Caribbean Sea and Central America, Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, and the western Pacific; while cyst stage distribution is broader, primarily in tropical to subtropical coastal areas from both the Atlantic and Pacific regions, and the Caribbean Sea (Usup et al., 2012). Abstract. Morphology of Pyrodinium bahamense plate (Dinoflagellata) near Isla San José, Gulf of California, Mexico. Hidrobiológica 18, 15–23. According to the registry of Federal Commission for the Protection against Sanitary Risks (COFEPRIS, by its acronym in Spanish) of the 118 HABs that have been reported from 2004 to 2014 in Mexico, 12% were linked to P. bahamense. 52 Pyrodinium bahamense Plate 1906 is a tropical to subtropical dinoflagellate that can 53 cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Nac. doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(85)90063-6, Campos-Campos, B., Cortés-Lara, M. C., and Rivas-Acuña, M. G. (2017). Quantitative Determination of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning Toxins in Shellfish Using Prechromatographic Oxidation and Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection. B., Aguilar-Trujillo, A. C., Osorio-Moreno, I., and Herrera-Silveira, J. Working off-campus? AOAC (1995). Ecophysiological studies with regional P. bahamense strains are insufficient in México, and so far, strains from Isla San José, Gulf of California have only been studied. Notas sobre algunos dinoflagelados planctónicos marinos de México con descripción de nuevas especies. |, Methodology Used in Mexico to Study and Monitor to, Mexican Strains Toxicity and Cysts Germination Characteristics, Martínez-Hernández and Hernández-Campos (1991), Gárate-Lizárraga and González-Armas (2011), Martínez-Hernández and Hernández-Campos, 1991, https://www.gob.mx/cofepris/acciones-y-programas/marea-roja-76038, https://www.gob.mx/cofepris/documentos/presencia-de-marea-roja-en-costas-nacionales-durante-2003, https://www.geotop.ca/upload/files/laboratoires/laboratoire-de-micropaleontologie-et-palynologie-marine-uqam/Micropal_Methods_2010.pdf, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY), Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, La Paz, Mexico. Ser. Global Biogeochem. Mex. The distribution of dinoflagellate cysts with their vegetative stage is broad, mainly along Mexican Pacific coasts from the central Gulf of California to Chiapas, as well as in the southern Gulf of Mexico and the Mexican Caribbean Sea on the Atlantic coast. and you may need to create a new Wiley Online Library account. Figure 1. Harmful Algae News 45, 2–3. Toxic and harmful marine phytoplankton and microalgae (HABs) in Mexican Coasts. Bull. In living cysts, the yellow-green cytoplasm encloses a red accumulation body (Figure 1D) and numerous starch grains (Morquecho et al., 2014). Received: 01 July 2018; Accepted: 07 January 2019;Published: 23 January 2019. Biological procedures to clean and concentrate cysts (Matsuoka and Fukuyo, 2000) has been used for identification, quantification, germination assays, and strains establishment. (2006); Martínez-López et al. To date, it has been demonstrated that cysts have a broader distribution in southern Gulf of California, primarily in restricted coastal lagoons, where it is the dominant morphotype (33–86%) (Morquecho et al., 2012; Cuellar-Martínez, 2018; Cuellar-Martínez et al., 2018). (2014). This mini-review ends with a viewpoint of management and research strategies to better understand the factors that play essential roles in the bloom dynamics and toxicity of this species. Eutrophication and harmful algal blooms: a scientific consensus. (E) Empty cyst showing chorate processes. A. doi: 10.1016/j.csr.2011.02.007, Keywords: Pyrodinium bahamense, Mexico, harmful blooms, saxitoxins, PSP, Citation: Morquecho L (2019) Pyrodinium bahamense One the Most Significant Harmful Dinoflagellate in Mexico. “Counting slides,” in Phytoplankton Manual Monographs on Oceanographic Methodology, Vol. 322, 99–115. (350 cases), and G. catenatum (241 cases). Puffer fish tissues, clonal cultures, and natural bloom samples of P. bahamense from the IRL tested toxic in the MBA, RBA, MNCA, Ridascreen ELISA, and MIST Alert assay and positive for STX, dc-STX, and B1 toxin by HPLC and LC-MS. This species has caused more human illnesses and fatalities than any other toxic dinoflagellate in Mexico. Environ. An. Sci., 23 January 2019 Ser. Box 60, Murfreesboro, Tennessee, 37132, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, 100 8th Avenue SE, St. Petersburg, Florida, 33701, J.D. Núñez-Vázquez, E. J., Band-Schmidt, C. J., Hernández-Sandoval, F. E., Bustillos-Guzmán, J. J., López-Cortés, D. J., et al. 26 Intoxicaciones por toxina paralizante de molusco en Oaxaca. “Introducción general,” in Florecimientos Algales Nocivos en México, eds E. García-Mendoza, S. I. Quijano-Scheggia, A. Olivos-Ortiz, and E. J. Núñez-Vázquez (Ensenada: CICESE), 10–20. compressum. Pyrodinium bahamense, is one of the most critical harmful algal bloom (HABs) organisms in South Asian coastal waters (Mertens et al., 2015). Southeast Mexican Pacific has been the most affected area, particularly the Gulf of Tehuantepec, as well as Guerrero and Michoacán (Figure 1 and Table 1). The identification of species is carried out by different techniques such as light and scanning electron microscopy, which allows the morphological and theca arrangement observations. Herein, we report the effect of cadmium, a biotoxic metal, to cell cultures of Pbc. compressum. Poot-Delgado, C. A., Rosado-García, P. I., and Guzmán-Noz, Y. Inst. The local winds “tehuanos”, and currents systems can move the dinoflagellate towards Mexico along the Central Pacific Coast through the Costa Rica Current Flow and Mexican Western Current (Vargas-Montero et al., 2008). Paralytic shellfish poisoning with a Gymnodinium catenatum red tide on the Pacific Coast of Mexico. Mar. • Develop morphological, ecotoxicological, and genetic studies with strains from several geographical regions of Mexico and Central America, which are needed to accept or modify the current species taxonomic status, as well as, corroborate populations autoecology and toxicity. Red tide ocurrences recorded in Mexico from 1980 to 1992. (1978). The effect of harmful algae could be increasing and expand as a consequence of increasing local marine eutrophication (Heisler et al., 2008) and ocean climate change (Hallegraeff, 2010). In the southern Gulf of Mexico, P. bahamense appears to have a continuous distribution and occurrence in a wide salinity range (3–38 ups) throughout the year, reaching densities of up to 1.5 × 106 cells L-1 Gómez-Aguirre (1998a). Bot. Cysts germination exhibit thermophilic (20–35°C with the peak between 25 and 30°C) and euryhaline characteristics (salinities from 20 to 35 ups). compressum in field samples is difficult because the bloom does not discolor the water and the species occur in low cell densities. Les Cahiers du GEOTOP No 3, 3rd Edn. A view at the end of the millennium. Usup, G., and Azanza, R. V. (1998). compressum and Pyrodinium bahamanse var. Concerning ambient variables, the record of in situ hydrological variables such as temperature and salinity are the most common, while nutrients rarely are considered. 2. A. Sournia (Paris: UNESCO), 184. (2002). Salud. This prevents, in the short term, the establishment of management plans to minimize HABs impacts as well as the advance of the understanding and prediction of them. However, it is highly probable that its distribution is as broad as that of vegetative cells, considering that P. bahamense cysts have been found in the central Gulf of California (Martínez-Hernández and Hernández-Campos, 1991), and in Baja California northern limit (Peña-Manjarrez et al., 2001, 2005) (Figure 1A). (2015). While not particularly dangerous out in the open ocean, the toxin is sequestered in molluscian shellfish and is dangerous to mollusk consumers. A. Micropaleontol. Merino-Virgilio, F. C., Okolodkov, Y. McClain, C. R., Christian, J. R., Signorini, S. R., Lewis, M. R., Asanuma, I., Turk, D., et al. It produces a bioluminescence as bright as the one in Vieques island . The author participated in all the activities of research: data collection, analyses, interpretation of the results, and manuscript writing. Micropaleontological Preparation Techniques and Analyses. doi: 10.3354/meps322099, Phlips, E. J., Badylak, S., Youn, S., and Kelley, K. (2004). doi: 10.1080/10934520701480219. Ph.D, thesis, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México-Posgrado en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Ciudad de México. Ser. AOAC (2005). 102, 51–68. Zool. doi: 10.1016/j.hal.2008.08.006, Hernández-Becerril, D. U., Alonso-Rodríguez, R., Álvarez-Góngora, C., Barón-Campis, S. A., Ceballos-Corona, G., Herrera-Silveira, J., et al. Cysts of Lingulodinium polyedrum, red tide producing organism in the Todos Santos Bay (Winter–Spring, 2000). Other clearly distinct dinoflagellates have also been recognised as sources of the STXs. (2018). Toxin production of a Malaysian isolate of the toxic red tide dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense var. The entity most affected was Oaxaca, followed by Guerrero and Chiapas (COFEPRIS, 2018). Usup, G., Ahmad, A., Matsuoka, K., Lim, T., and Leaw, C. P. (2012). (2014) analyzed nine strains through fluorescence high-performance liquid chromatography, and only one exhibited toxicity with high saxitoxin concentration (95 pg STX eq cell-1). From 1989 to 2007 shellfish toxicity reached concentrations above the permissible limits for human consumption (800 μg STX eq kg-1), and consequently caused 200 human cases, with 15 fatalities (Hern… doi: 10.7773/cm.v27i4.501, Peña-Manjarrez, J. L., Helenes, J., Gaxiola-Castro, G., and Orellana-Cepeda, E. (2005). 55, 611–623. • Select as target ecosystems the coastal lagoons with and without mangrove populations. bahamense in coastal waters of Florida. Cont. The gonyaulacoid dinoflagellates of the genus, Alexandrium and Pyrodinium, as well as a single gymnodinoid species, Gymnodinium catenatum, are known to synthesize STX []. Also, the in vitro germination is improved in growth medium enriched with terrestrial soil extract and selenium. Martínez-Hernández, E., and Hernández-Campos, H. (1991). A. Toxicity and paralytic toxin profile in Pyrodinium bahamense var. (2000). Phytoplankton samples are collected weekly and abundances ≥5 × 103 cells L-1 of P. bahamense are considered a potential indicator of toxins accumulation in shellfish1. Cortés-Altamirano, R., Hernández-Becerril, D. U., and Luna-Soria, R. (1995). Palynol. 42, 1349–1363. The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Pyrodinium bahamense var. doi: 10.7773/cm.v23i3.809. Cienc. 23, 329–340. J. Phycol. 5, 140–149. Acta Bot. doi: 10.1016/0141-1136(86)90040-1. Pyrodinium bahamense. Pyrodinium bahamense is the main STX producer in tropical waters, whilst G. catenatum is reported from the coasts of all continents [10,11]. (2012); Merino-Virgilio et al. Univ. Use the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. (2006). Inst. the Receptor Binding Assay, was used for studying the uptake of Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) toxins in the green bay mussel Perna viridis highly consumed in the Philippines. For example, the dinoflagellate may develop persistent moderate and massive toxic blooms in Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas coastal margin (Figure 1), which is characterized by a large-scale hydrological and atmospheric influence (Table 1); while in the southern Gulf of California, moderate blooms are restricted to coastal lagoons inhabited by mangroves, and develop only during the summer and the short-term rainy period. (2008). doi: 10.1579/0044-7447-30.6.356, PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Balech, E. (1985). Micropaleontol. 621, 548–557. Fu, F. X., Tatters, A. O., and Hutchins, D. A. (2012) have questioned the significance of the presence or absence of mangrove forests in the distribution pattern of P. bahamense. Waiwood, B. A., and Reyes-Salinas, A. Nac. Rev. Table 1. Microbiol. Méx. 37, 343–352. Hasle, G. R. (1978). (2004). “Preservation and storage,” in Phytoplankton Manual Monographs on Oceanographic Methodology, Vol. Pyrodinium bahamense usually blooms during the rainy summer (June through September), in restricted shallow lagoons surrounded by mangrove forests (Licea et al., 2004; Meave-del Castillo et al., 2012; Morquecho et al., 2012; Merino-Virgilio et al., 2014), with coastal underground drainage (Gómez-Aguirre, 1998b). Monitoring for food safety on the coasts of Mexico, with particular emphasis on aquaculture areas or the exploitation of marine products, requires essential adjustments to validate and strengthen the management and decision-making database. To date, there is only a single published study on its fatty acids, but no published data on its sterol composition. An. 1980, Balech 1985, Azanza and Taylor 2001). Inst. Riqueza fitoplanctónica de la bahía de Acapulco y zona costera aledaña, Guerrero, México. doi: 10.19136/kuxulkab.a23n46.2556. The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Auton. The marine dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum has been recently identified as a source for the disulfated polyether toxin, yessotoxin (YTX), and may pose a risk to human health, aquaculture development and coastal environments. CICIMAR Oceánides 26, 67–71. thinking. doi: 10.1016/j.marmicro.2013.06.002, Lluch-Cota, S. E., Álvarez-Borrego, S., Santamaria-del Ángel, E. M., Muller-Karger, F. E., and Hernandez-Vazquez, S. (1997). The data obtained so far on P. bahamense spatial and population variability in Mexican Pacific and the Gulf of Mexico, suggest a seasonal and latitudinal pattern. During boreal winter (December through April), a strong but intermittent wind blows across central America from the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean driving upwelling events (Antoine et al., 1996; Pennington et al., 2006). Mar. Landsberg et al. Cienc. However, a similar co-occurrence between P. bahamense and Pseudo-nitzschia species has also been reported in the Indian River Lagoon, Florida (Phlips et al., 2004). Pyrodinium bahamense produces saxitoxins and can cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Pyrodinium bahamense and other toxic dinoflagellates are significantly impacting human and environmental health, as well as having significant impact on economic activities. The requirements of P. reticulatum for selenium, iron and cobalt were assessed in culture. Pyrodinium bahamense is a dinoflagellate of concern in subtropical and tropical coastal environments. Kuxulkab 23, 29–40. doi: 10.21149/spm.v57i4.7578, Antoine, D., André, J. M., and Morel, A. Critical elements such as environmental factors, specifically removal of top-down predators and a change from eutrophic to oligotrophic conditions, likely promote the dominance and toxicity of P. bahamense in Florida (Walsh et al., 2011).

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